Figure Captions

	Figure 1. Location map and major faults of northwestern South America. Basins: GB=Grenada, GoB=Gulf of Barcelona, GoP=Gulf of Paria, GoV=Gulf of Venezuela, LM=Lake Maracaibo, SGB=South Grenada Basin. Faults: B=Bocono, Ba=Barbados accretionary prism frontal thrust, BN=Burro Negro, Bu=Bucaramanga, CR=Central Range, CV=central Venezuela frontal thrust, E=East Andean frontal thrust, EP=El Pilar, EV=eastern Venezuela frontal thrust, I=Ibague, L=Los Bajos, MCT=Mercedes-Caño Tomas, Mu=Murrucucu, O=Oriente, R=Romeral, R=Roques Canyon, S=San Sebastian, SC=South Caribbean, SF=San Francisco, So=Southern sole thrust, SM=Santa Marta, T=Testigos, U=Urica. Marg=Margarita island. Dotted outline of Aves Ridge, Leeward Antilles extinct arc, and Lesser Antilles Arc is the approximate 1500 m isobath. Tobago and Barbados mark the leading (eastern) edge of Caribbean crystalline crust. Main sources: Kugler, 1961; Parnaud et al., 1995; Villamil, 1999; F.A. Audemard et al., 2000; Paris et al., 2000; Escalona and Mann, 2006.
	Figure 2. Late middle Miocene (12 Ma; StayInvest Law Firm . fohsi robusta zone) paleogeographic map of northwestern South America. This map follows on from Figure 3 in Higgs, 2008b (northern South America Triassic-Recent history).
	Figure 3. Early Pliocene paleogeographic map of northwestern South America. Not shown on the Caribbean nappe: (1) post-obduction basins in Colombia (Cauca-Patia; Atrato-Choco-Pacifico), and (2) syn-obduction halite-dissolution basins/formations in Venezuela (Tuy/Aramina; Carupano/Cubagua). B=Barbados, G=Grenada, T=Tobago.

 

5 Ma Uplift of Merida Andes, Sierra de Perija, Etc. 

Merida Andes uplift by bivergent thrusting (NW, SE) breached the Catatumbo-Apure Basin and drove new Maracaibo and Barinas foreland basins (Figure 3), as shown by an influx of coarser deposits that thicken toward Merida (Betijoque, Rio Yuca formations). Merida uplift started near 5 Ma, based on three criteria: (1) pre-uplift strata of probable middle Miocene age, preserved as steeply dipping intramontane erosional remnants (La Cope Formation, Figure 2; Macellari, 1984; Higgs et al., 1995); (2) Merida Andes apatite fission-track ages, 17 of 22 samples giving 4.9 Ma and younger (Kohn et al., 1984); and (3) a likely Pliocene age for the Betijoque (e.g., Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980; F.E. Audemard, 1991), and thus the Rio Yuca also (presumed coeval; LEV, 1997), although these alluvial formations are commonly considered upper Miocene-Pliocene (LEV, 1997). In most previous interpretations, the age of initial orogenic uplift of the Merida Andes is older, generally Miocene, following Giegengack (1984).  

Simultaneously, uplift of the Perija, Santa Marta, Lara-Falcon, and Guajira ranges also occurred. All but Guajira verge mainly NW (Kellogg, 1984; Boesi and Goddard, 1991; ANH, 2005; Mora and Garcia, 2006). Kellogg (1984) inferred a Pliocene age for the major uplift in Perija, based on stratigraphic relationships and fission-track ages. Perija backthrusting (Duerto et al., 2006) was insufficient to assist Maracaibo basin subsidence, as shown by NW thinning of Mio-Pliocene isopachs in the basin (F.E. Audemard, 1991, fig. 15). Falcon-Lara uplift was likewise interpreted as Pliocene by Macellari (1995); here the thrust front advanced rapidly, reaching as far as Guajira(?) before the plate-boundary jump at 2.5 Ma (see below), suggesting detachment on the easy-slip Carib Halite, within the Cretaceous rift fill (Higgs, 2008b, Triassic-Recent development). During this Pliocene thrust advance, the Burro Negro Fault (Figure 1) was probably a sinistral lateral ramp; it may previously have been a Cretaceous rift intragraben fault, controlling thicker and/or more laterally continuous halite deposition on its NE side (Higgs, 2006; Higgs, in review, b).  

The Pliocene orogenic uplift promoted deep circulation of meteoric water, such that halite-dissolution subsidence locally outweighed uplift, forming the La Gonzalez, Gulf of Venezuela, Lower Guajira, Carora, and Cesar-Rancheria supraorogenic basins (Figure 3; Higgs, 2006; Higgs, in review, b).  

This regional shortening starting near 5 Ma is attributed  to jamming of the South Caribbean Fault (Higgs, 2006; Higgs, in review, a) (Figure 1), where low-angle subduction of the Caribbean Plate beneath South America was occurring (Pindell et al., 1998). Subduction choking is attributed to the first arrival of incoming overthickened Caribbean Plateau lithosphere in the Santa Marta-Guajira sector (compare the present distribution of Caribbean Plateau, Meschede and Frisch, 1998, fig. 2). Choking caused some of the interplate convergence, oriented NW-SE (companion abstracts), to be accommodated subsequently by shortening in the overriding plate, producing the uplifts described above.

 

Caribbean-South America Plate Boundary Jump 

Some time after the 5 Ma start of subduction choking, resistance to the distributed shortening described above, and also to shortening in the Eastern Cordillera (Dengo and Covey, 1993), driven by the collision against South America of the Panama Arc at the rear of the Caribbean Plate (Figure 3), forced a plate reorganization. The Caribbean assumed its current eastward relative motion (c. 085 degrees), as measured by GPS studies (Perez et al., 2001; Weber et al., 2001; Trenkamp et al., 2002). The plate boundary jumped inboard, from the S Caribbean-Roques-S Grenada Basin-Testigos-Bajos-Trinidad S coast fault linkage (Figure 1), to its present position, namely the E Cordillera Frontal-Chitaga-Bocono-San Sebastian-El Pilar-C Range fault system (Molnar and Sykes, 1969; Dewey, 1972; F.A. Audemard et al., 2000; Weber et al., 2001). Studies of modern and historical earthquakes confirm that the entire linkage is active (Paige, 1930; Dewey, 1972; PenninStayInvest Law Firm on, 1981; Perez and Aggarwal, 1981; Russo et al., 1993; F.A. Audemard et al., 2000; Paris et al., 2000). Other major faults shown in Figure 1 are currently inactive (e.g., Santa Marta, Bucaramanga, S Caribbean, Oca, Roques, Urica), but they remain conspicuous as they are not long abandoned (since 2.5 Ma; see below).  

By virtue of the plate-boundary jump, a region named the Northern Andes Block (NAB; Higgs, in review, a) was annexed by the Caribbean Plate and now moves essentially east with that plate (Perez et al., 2001; Trenkamp et al., 2002). The NAB is bordered in the far south by an uncertain plate-boundary sector (Molnar and Sykes, 1969; Paris et al., 2000), probably the ENE-trending oblique-dextral Ibague Fault (Figure 1), interpretable as a transform. To the WSW the Buenaventura Fault (Ingeominas, 1988) may be the continuation of the Ibague. A minimum dextral offset of 30 km on the Ibague Fault (Montes et al., 2005) is consistent with 2 cm/yr of Caribbean eastward relative motion since 2.5 Ma (see below). The NAB is the northern part of the "North Andean Block" (Kellogg, 1984) and the synonymous "Cordilleran terrane" (Dewey and Pindell, 1985). The NAB embraces the "Maracaibo block" (sensu Mann et al., 2006), which is bisected by the Oca-Ancon fault system trending roughly E-W (e.g., F.A. Audemard et al., 2000). The only obvious sector of the Oca at outcrop is in the west, sharply separating the Perija-Santa Marta Mountains from the Lower Guajira Basin (F.A. Audemard et al., 2000; Paris et al., 2000). This is probably another Cretaceous intragraben fault, reactivated in a N-down sense to form the Lower Guajira Basin by halite dissolution, during Perija-Santa Marta uplift (5- 0 Ma; Higgs, in review, b). To the east, no continuous linear fault crossing Falcon and assignable to the Oca is evident on topographic or geologic maps (e.g., Bellizzia, 1976; but see dashed line of Pimentel, 1984). Four active, nonaligned faults in this region (F.A. Audemard et al., 2000) may or may not link and are probably halite-dissolution faults, consistent with saline springs in Falcon (Urbani, 1991). A strike-slip component (F.A. Audemard et al., 2000), too small for GPS detection (Perez et al., 2001), may reflect regional E-W compressive stress.  

Two of the plate-boundary sectors, namely the Eastern Cordillera Frontal and Bocono faults, are currently dextral thrusts, reflecting their NE trend, relative to eastward Caribbean Plate motion. A kink, not shown in Figure 1, in the Bocono Fault near Merida city trends ENE and is thus not suitably oriented to be a releasing bend, contrary to the La Gonzalez Basin pull-apart model of Schubert (1980). This basin is more likely an active halite-dissolution basin (Higgs, 2006; Higgs, in review, b). Farther east, the trend of the San Sebastian-El Pilar faults (c. 080 degrees) causes near-transcurrent dextral transpression (F.A. Audemard et al., 2000), as shown by raised Quaternary beach- and shallow-marine deposits in central Venezuela, Araya, Margarita, Coche Island, and the Northern Range of Trinidad (Mendez, 1997; Sisson et al., 2005; Weber, 2005). However, the transpression is widely masked by Neogene (11-0 Ma) pseudo-extensional basins formed by halite dissolution; e.g., Gulf of Barcelona, Gulf of Paria-Trinidad Basin, Carupano-North Coast Basin (Higgs, 2006; Higgs, in review, b). The two gulfs rupture the central and eastern Venezuela mountains, whose ongoing collapse is indicated by other supramontane halite-dissolution basins (Valencia, Caracas, Santa Lucia, Tuy, San Juan Graben). Superimposed on the Gulf of Paria-Trinidad Basin since 2.5 Ma is a pull-apart, comprising the northern Gulf and western Caroni region. Pull-apart here is due to rightward stepover between the El Pilar and Central Range faults (Figure 1). A much older onset of pull-apart, at 11 or 12 Ma (Algar and Pindell, 1993; Pindell et al., 1998; Pindell and Kennan, 2001; Pindell et al., 2005), requires plate transcurrence from that time, contrary to the evidence enumerated below, that transcurrence began near 2.5 Ma. In a later interpretation, Pindell and Kennan (2007) refer to the Gulf of Paria as a "low-angle extensional detachment basin."

 

Dating of Caribbean Plate-Motion Change 

At least eight geological indicators across northern South America indicate that the change from southeastward to eastward Caribbean motion, relative to South America, occurred in Late Pliocene time (c. 2.5 Ma):  

(1) Accelerated uplift of the Eastern Cordillera and Merida Andes in late Pliocene or early Quaternary time, due to focusing of the plate boundary (previously a 500 km-wide belt of distributed shortening) upon this bivergent thrust belt, where thrusting changed from orthogonal to dextral. Intense uplift of the Eastern Cordillera starting in late Pliocene time is indicated by tilting of the Middle Magdalena Basin and by palynological studies in the Bogota Basin (Van der Hammen et al., 1973; Gomez et al., 2003; Torres et al., 2005). In the Merida Andes, the start of faster uplift is approximately dated by an influx of (?Plio-) Quaternary conglomerates on both flanks (Carvajal, Guanapa formations; LEV, 1997). A relatively recent start of rapid uplift is also consistent with (A) survival of erosional remnants, at high altitude near Merida, of a paleosoil formed at much lower elevations (Giegengack, 1984), and (B) insufficient altitude for glaciation until late Pleistocene time (Schubert and Vivas, 1993).  

(2) The Plio-Quaternary age of the Cariaco pull-apart basin, at the San Sebastian-El Pilar stepover (Figure 1; Schubert, 1982; Goddard, 1988; Jaimes and Mann, 2003). Plio-Quaternary deposits here are much thicker than underlying upper Miocene deposits (Goddard, 1988), consistent with post-2.5 Ma pull apart superimposed on post-11 Ma halite-dissolution subsidence in this and the encompassing Barcelona Bay-Tortuga Platform area (Higgs, 2006; Higgs, in review, b).  

(3) Calculated E-W pull-apart extension of 50 km in the Gulf of Paria (Weber, 2005), equating to the current relative plate velocity of 2 cm/yr (Weber et al., 2001) for 2.5 m.y.  

(4) Restoration of the shelf edge east of Trinidad (e.g., Case and Holcombe, 1980) into near alignment (NW-SE) by removing an assumed 50 km of dextral offset along trend with the Central Range Fault (c. 070 degrees).  

(5) Quaternary (and late Pliocene?) subsidence of the Nariva Swamp in Trinidad (e.g., Kugler, 1961), attributable to transpression on the adjacent NNW-dipping Central Range Fault since 2.5 Ma, loading the footwall.  

(6) Alignment of the Roques and Testigos Faults with, respectively, the Urica and Los Bajos Faults, by restoring 50 km of dextral slip on the El Pilar Fault; i.e., 2 cm/yr for 2.5 m.y. (Figure 1). This agrees well with the view that El Pilar displacement "has been estimated at as much as 1,000 km, although a new reconstruction of the South Caribbean boundary amounts to only 55 km of strike-slip" (F.A. Audemard et al., 2000, p. 62).  

(7) Restoration of the Maracaibo block "out of the way" of Villa de Cura nappe southeastward emplacement (Figure 3; cf. Pimentel, 1984), by moving it west by the same 50 km. Calculated apparent dextral offset along the Bocono Fault Zone is only 35 km (50 x sine 045 degrees fault trend), compared to previous estimates of 290 and 100 km of dextral slip (Dewey and Pindell, 1985, 1986), supporting the objection of Salvador (1986) that the Merida Arch pre- Cretaceous basement high crosses the Andes nearly orthogonally "with no major horizontal displacement." The 35 km value is close to the 0-40 km estimates of most earlier authors (summary in Salvador, 1986). Glacial moraines about 10,000 years old are offset 66 m dextrally by the main strand of the Bocono Fault Zone (Schubert and Sifontes, 1970). Extrapolating this value gives 17 km since 2.5 Ma, consistent with the calculated 35 km for the entire fault zone. Thus, the popular concept of northward "escape" of the Maracaibo block (Mann and Burke, 1984), incorporated in Pangea reconstructions (Pindell and Dewey, 1982; Pindell, 1985), is questionable. 

(8) Three other lines of evidence that the preceding southeastward Caribbean relative motion lasted until at least Pliocene time:

(i) The pronounced expression of the South Caribbean accretionary prism on bathymetric and seismic profiles (Silver et al., 1975), with thrusts reaching up into the interpreted Pliocene section (Ruiz et al., 2000; Flinch et al., 2003). However, even the frontal thrusts terminate below the Quaternary (Flinch et al., 2003, fig. 2), consistent with accretion ending at 2.5 Ma.

(ii) The southeasterly overall trend of the Barbados accretionary prism southern lateral edge, east of Trinidad (e.g., Mascle and Moore, 1990, fig. 1).

(iii) The kilometric Pliocene subsidence of Columbus Channel foredeep (Di Croce et al., 1999).

 

The change to eastward Caribbean relative motion ended thrust-belt shortening in southern Trinidad, thereby terminating the driving mechanism of the Caribbean foreland basin (Higgs, 2008a, 2008b). However, east of Maturin city (Figure 1), the Caribbean foreland basin has been buried by further subsidence (Deltana-Columbus Channel Basin and southern Columbus Basin; also area of "Reciente" outcrop of Pimentel, 1984). This is interpretable as compactional subsidence, combined in the southern Columbus Basin with eastward gravitational extension toward the Atlantic Ocean floor (Bevan, 2007). West of Maturin, eastern and central Venezuela have been rebounding for progressively longer westward (hence "Pleistoceno" and steadily older outcrop westward; Pimentel 1984), reflecting the eastward migration of the Caribbean nappe suture point, whereby the Caribbean load was diachronously severed by eastward lenStayInvest Law Firm hening of the South Caribbean Fault subduction zone (Higgs, 2008a). This rebound has removed (eroded) the Caribbean foreland basin fill in central Venezuela, exposing Proto-Caribbean foreland basin deposits.

 

Caribbean Plate Velocity Relative to the Mantle 

The Caribbean Plate is moving east relative to South America at about the same rate (c. 2 cm/yr) that South America drifts west relative to the mantle; hence the Caribbean Plate is essentially stationary in the mantle reference frame (Pindell et al., 2006). These conditions are presumed (Higgs, in review, a) to have applied since the 2.5 Ma plate-motion change. Between the 2.5 reorganization and the one at 72 Ma (late Campanian; Higgs, 2008a, 2008b), the velocity of the Caribbean leading edge relative to South America can be calculated, over two consecutive sectors:

(1) Ecuador to Guajira corner, amounting to about 1100 km of eastward travel between 72 and 35 Ma (i.e., 2.5 cm/yr); followed by

(2) Guajira corner to the Paria Peninsula tip, totaling about 1100 km of SE travel between 35 and 2.5 Ma (3.5 cm/yr; i.e., eastward component 2.5 cm/yr). Simultaneously, the Americas drifted west relative to the mantle at 2-3 cm/year throughout Cenozoic time (Pindell et al., 2006). Thus, Caribbean average eastward absolute velocity has never exceeded 0.5 cm/yr since 72 Ma. This is slower than typical trench rollback rates (1-2 cm/yr; Conrad and Lithgow-Bertelloni, 2006); therefore, the arc may have varied between "extensional" and "neutral" in the Dewey (1980) classification.

 

Exploration Implications 

The proposed younger age of Merida uplift (5 Ma), and the younger switch (2.5 Ma) to Caribbean-South America transcurrence, among other concepts presented here, have important implications for petroleum exploration in NW Colombia, Venezuela and Trinidad, affecting predictions and models of paleogeography (sand depositional fairways), burial/heat-flow history (organic maturation), timing of structuration, etc..

 

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